Joseph Beuys | Giles Duley | Antony Gormley | Richard Long | Inspirational Quotes & Influential Reading | Literature Review | Bibliography
Inspirational Artists;
Joseph BEUYS
The cognitive process; natural or chance occurrences?
His works using participatory art, 7000 oak trees laid outside the Tate. One by one the trees were taken by participants and planted. It was an organic sculpture that continually changed as it shrunk.
Above: 7000 Oaks. Tate.
Above: The End of the Twentieth Century 1983-5 Joseph Beuys
Another exercise I found interesting in the book was the ’40 sticks in the forest’, I like the concept, and could be achievable when adhering to the new Covid restrictions too as each participant could lay a stick on the assigned pile. The many contributors would be responsible for creating an organic Art piece. The second aspect to the piece would happen when the sticks were removed, like the 700 Oaks, the piece would change as it shrunk.
Participatory and socially engaged art practices allow us to view art as something living and the material we use can evoke and/or provoke meaning and discussion. It is this allowing something to emerge organically is what we are aiming for in collaborating with participants and others, and it is this introduction of our art to others that immediately allows us to develop the concept or piece because we automatically enter into a dialogue, by learning and listening to their views or ideas on how to push the concept forward.
Giles DULEY
Documenting invisible people of the Syrian War 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7853-bfrpfI
When the reporter becomes the story 2012
https://www.ted.com/talks/giles_duley_when_a_reporter_becomes_the_story?language=en
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/feb/10/giles-duley-photography-amputee-afghanistan
Giles Duley pictured above is a photographer who was seriously injured, losing 3 limbs when he stepped on a landmine in Afghanistan. “The innocents” Duley now uses his craft to help tell people’s stories who have experienced war
Documenting and highlighting the stories and struggles of minority groups regarded as ‘invisible or displaced’, his work has been described as ‘humanising’ refugees. Amongst other projects, his Legacy of War campaign continues to help raise awareness on the appalling living conditions faced by refugees such as the unofficial camp Rohingya’s refugees in Kutupalong; refugees were left to rot for almost 20 years, there an ‘elder’ declared how much the community relyed on Duley’s presence in the camp, stating “we want someone to tell our story and record what is happening to us”
Antony GORMLEY
https://mymodernmet.com/antony-gormley-field/
A Massive Field of 200,000 Clay Figures. By Pinar Noorata 2012
British sculptor Antony Gormley is well-known for his life-size sculptures that creatively mimic the human body, but the figurative clay mounds from his series titled Field holds deeper value for the artist. Gormley says of this project, “I wanted to work with people and to make a work about our collective future and our responsibility for it. I wanted the art to look back at us, its makers (and later the viewers), as if we were responsible – responsible for the world that it [FIELD] and we were in.”
This passion project that has spanned across almost 15 years on five separate occasions in different parts of the world displays an army of 200,000 clay figures that completely occupy the space they are exhibited in. Gormley works with the native people of the installation’s exhibiting space to mould the 125 tons of clay. The artist animatedly describes the figures as being “energised by fire, sensitised by touch and made conscious by being given eyes.”
Richard LONG
Above: A line in the Himalayas 1975
Above: River Avon Mud Crescent 2011
Richard Long makes the art in places he chooses, with the materials that are found there. Where there are no materials, he simply makes marks by what he has to hand. For instance, walks up and down until a line becomes visible, or makes a line by pouring water from his flask; after a while, the sun will dry the line away. His works are ‘traces of staying and passing’ and it is this principle that draws me to his work, and the connections I have made to those that have in some way experienced displacement. The journeys we make, the recording of where we have been, and the traces we leave behind.
Inspirational Quotes
‘The life of a person is the sum of his tracks, the total inscription of his movements is something that can be traced out along the ground”
Roy Wagner, 1986:21 cited in Tim Ingold, Being Alive, Essays on Movement, Knowledge and Description, 2011.
“Inclusion is not a matter of political correctness. It is the key to growth.”
Jesse Jackson, Politician and Civil Rights Activist
“To be called a refugee is the opposite of an insult; it is a badge of strength, courage, and victory.”
Tennessee Office for Refugees
“The right to have rights, or the right of every individual to belong to humanity, should be guaranteed by humanity itself,”
Hannah Arendt
“A refugee is someone who survived and who can create the future.”
Amela Koluder
“The world will not be destroyed by those who do evil, but by those who watch them without doing anything.”
Albert Einstein
“Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”
Martin Luther King Jr.
“Refugees didn’t just escape a place. They had to escape a thousand memories until they’d put enough time and distance between them and their misery to wake up to a better day.”
Nadia Hashimi
Diversity and inclusion, which are the real grounds for creativity, must remain at the center of what we do.
Marco Bizzarri
Inspirational Reading;
Transculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1940 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures.
‘The cultural life of the UK has been enriched by individuals who first came to the country as refugees, bringing new voices and a wider range of cultural influences. Some refugee artists have commented that the intensity of the experience of exile has had a major impact on their creative sensibility’ https://baringfoundation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/ArtsandRefugees.pdf
“Research into the impact of arts and culture on the integration of refugees and asylum seekers has found that the process of integration is closely linked to inclusion in social structures and developing strong relationships with others within the community” Soon, et al., (2013) quoted Gould ‘Reflections on a participatory research project’
“The life of a person is the sum of his tracks, the total inscription of his movements is something that can be traced out along the ground” Roy Wagner, cited in Tim Ingold, Being Alive, Essays on Movement, Knowledge and Description, 2011.
Arts and refugees in the UK: some findings on impact; “Overall, much significant work has been undertaken. Participatory projects from Brighton to Glasgow and from Swansea to Norwich have supported refugees and asylum seekers in learning new skills and settling into their new society. Participatory arts projects have also helped to bridge the divide between refugee and host communities, alleviating hostility and suspicion and building greater understanding and acceptance on both sides”. Arts and Refugees, History, Impact and Future (2008) Arts Council England, London The Baring Foundation & The Paul Hamlyn Foundation.
Creating Social Change through Creativity by Moshoula Capous-Desyllas
Anti-Oppressive Arts-based Research Methodologies.
Re-thinking research: Opportunities and challenges in participatory research approaches.
Participatory Research approaches attempt to address and formulate the power dynamics inherent in conventional research processes, striving to gain knowledge using a bottoms-up approach that “focuses on a process of sequential reflection and action carried out with and by local people rather than on them” (Cornwall & Jewkes, 1995,pg:1667 cited in Capous-Desyllas, 2018)
The mimetic re-telling of life stories in a visual form can help validate the experiences of participants and the artifacts produced (such as photographs, exhibitions, or narratives). They can inform, educate, remind, challenge, and empower all involved including any future viewers or audiences. It is often overlooked that the participants themselves are experts in their own lived experiences and central to the production and sharing of this knowledge. Conversely, poorly managed and unethical participatory research approaches could be dangerous to participants and their communities.
For an arts-based participatory research process to be trusted, requires two things, an acknowledgment of what is required by all participants and enough time for critical reflection on what had occurred. This time of gathering information and learning from each other can be very powerful as it provides a solid base for participants to reflect and formulate outcomes that can be seen as being reliable and credible.
Participation by Claire Bishop
The social dimension of participation; “the desire to move viewers out of the role of passive observers and into the role of producers” this description engaged me from the outset.
Emphasis is on collaboration and the collective dimension of tangible, social experiences. Her work on how the act of physically engaging the viewer in a work of art and socially-oriented projects, gave me the idea of how to include participants in a group collaboration whilst also adhering to covid regulations. See my projects which used the fragmented approach to participation; using 4 sites across Sussex and social media to engage the audience and participants and remote workshops with participants using the post to send and receive materials.
pg11 One of the first texts to elaborate on the political status of participation dates from 1934 Walter Benjamin; “…but at the position that the work occupies in the production relations of its time.”, “….the more consumers it’s able to turn into producers……into collaborators“
pg13 Constructed situations (working with live events)… aimed to produce new and social relations and social realities. Frequently cited by Nicolas Bourriaud in his ‘Relational Aesthetics’ (1998) – debates the status of participation.
Pg15 Lars Bang Larsen’s ‘Social Aesthetics’ (1999) – an attempt to present connections between today’s participatory practice and the historical precursors of the 1960s.
Education for Socially Engaged Art by Pablo Helguera
The writings of Pablo Helguera have helped me to make informed decisions about how to engage and construct meaningful exchanges and experiences when considering socially engaged art and toward planning my projects and workshops. Of particular interest are;
“Ethnographic research helps to make informed decisions about how to engage and construct meaningful exchanges and experiences” Pablo Helguera Education for Socially Engaged Art
pg1 All art, in as much as it is created to communicate or to be experienced by others, is social.
pg2 What characterises Socially Engaged Art (SEA) is its dependence on social intercourse as a factor of its existence.
pg3 In previous decades, art based on social interaction was identified as; “relational aesthetics”, “community”, “collaborative”, “participatory” and “dialogic”
pg9 “Community” is a word commonly associated with SEA. Not only does each SEA project depend on a community for its existence, but such projects are, most people agree community-building mechanisms.
pg10 Shannon Flattery – seeks to help individual communities define their own voice.
pg 14- 15 Participation and SEA
The Multi-layered Participatory Structures; What is participation? Do I participate by simply entering an exhibition? only when I participate when actively engaged in the art? or if I find myself in the middle of the creation but decline to get involved, have I participated or not?
Participation shares the same problems as Socially Engaged Art (SEA). All art is participatory as it requires the presence of a spectator, the conditions of participation for SEA are often more specific and is important to understand it in the time frame during which it happens.
1 Nominal Participation – The viewer contemplates the art in a reflective manner; passive detachment such as a gallery or exhibition etc. The artist Muntadas posted this warning for one of his exhibitions “Attention: Perception Requires Participation”
2 Directed Participation – The visitor completes a simple task to contribute toward the creation/art. Eg; Yoko Ono’s Wish Tree [1996] where visitors were encouraged to write a wish on a piece of paper and hang it on the tree.
3 Creative Participation – The visitor provides content for a component of the work within a structure established by the artist. Eg; Allison Smith’s work The Muster [2005] where 50 volunteers in Civil War uniforms engaged in a reenactment declaring the causes for which they personally were fighting. – I think this is very similar to Directed Participation, but with perhaps the difference of personal reasoning, making the objective more relevant?
4 Collaborative Participation – The visitor shares responsibility for developing the structure and content of the work in collaboration and direct dialogue with the artist. Eg; Caroline Woolard’s ongoing project Our Goods, where participants offer goods or services of interest and need. “Solidarity Economies” Again, I see comparisons and cross overs to Creative Participation as the participant also shares a responsibility for developing the structure by engagement, both physically and personal meaning.
pg17 Virtual Participation – The relationship between face-to-face and virtual sociality. Social Media and social networks have proven to be very effective forms of instigating social interaction and action. Online platforms such as Blackboard, Padlet & Haiku provide spaces where community members can interact, commenting and exchanging information on the production of a project.
pg 19 Time and Effort – Something in common with every pedagogical approach is the emphasis on the necessity of investing time to achieve a goal – If I compare my experiences within The Rocket Artist sessions, during my community projects and the art research sessions so far, allowing Time is the aspect I value the most. I believe I could meet any objective with participants of any ability, or tackle the barriers that could inhibit communications or collaborations if we were able to invest enough time in the interaction or art project. Time allows us to work on/out ways of communicating and interacting with each other.
Other research by Dr. Maggie O’Neill and Dr. Bea Tobolewska at Loughborough University has highlighted used participatory action research to develop work with refugees and asylum seekers in the UK.
Transitional Refugees; The Transformative Role of Art? by Maggie O’Neill
The transformative role of Art
The following highlighted extracts encapsulate my thoughts on the meaning and power of storytelling, and the role art can have in this process.
Abstract: This paper focuses upon the transformative role of art and the methodological approach of working with artists to conduct ethnographic research with refugees and asylum seekers. In exploring the space or hyphen between ethnography (sociology) and arts-based practice (photos, installations, textual practice) I suggest that the combination of biography/narrative (ethnography) and art (mimesis) becomes a “potential space” for transformative possibilities. More specifically, drawing upon Walter BENJAMIN’s (1992) The Storyteller I will discuss the methodological contribution of combining biography/narrative with art forms (ethno-mimesis) in creating a “potential space”, a reflective/safe space for dialogue and narratives to emerge around the themes of transnational identities, home and belonging. The importance of renewing methodologies for the work we do within the area of forced migration, humiliation, “egalization” and human rights (LINDNER, 2006), the role of the arts in processes of social inclusion, and the vital importance for creating spaces for dialogue and performative praxis through participatory methodologies are also discussed.
4.2 The transformative role of art
Generally, for critical theorists and cultural sociologists the relationship of art to society is one of mediation (see ADORNO, 1978, 1984, 1997; BENJAMIN, 1985, 1992; NICHOLSEN, 1997, 1999; WITKIN, 1974, 1995, 1998 and WOLFF, 1981). Art is a “feeling form” created in the tension between sensuous knowing, the playfulness and creativity of the artist, and the historically given techniques and means of production. Art is a social product not just a reflection on its social origins and it manifests its own specificity—it is constitutive. Art makes visible experiences, hopes, ideas; it is a reflective space and socially it brings something new into the world—it contributes to knowledge and understanding. In so doing it is intrinsically political. For Sherry NICHOLSEN (1997, drawing upon BARTHES) photography has the power to pierce us and bring us in touch with intractable reality in ways that we cannot forget and helps us to develop a broader more compassionate, and accurate consciousness.
(1989) argues that the challenge of hyphenated reality is expressed through bringing becoming Asian-American into the story (BROMLEY, 2001, p.5) and she does this in her filmic work by inter-relating dialogue/narrative and re- presentational forms. More recently, DE LA FUENTE (2007, p.409) makes a good case for the development of the “new sociology of art” and the contingency of art-making that includes “framing questions about the aesthetic properties of art and artworks in a way that is compatible with social constructionism“. In doing so he draws upon MOLOTOCH’s (see De La FUENTE, 2007) sociology of consumer goods Where Stuff Comes From to explain the mediation of art and society in a way that is very helpful to the discussion in this section of the paper:
“The storyteller takes what he tells from experience—his own or that reported by others. And he, in turn, makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale … The most extraordinary things, marvelous things, are related with the greatest accuracy, but the psychological connection of the events is not forced upon the reader. It is left up to him to interpret things the way he understands them, and thus the narrative achieves an amplitude that information lacks” (Walter BENJAMIN, 1992, pp.87-89 cited in Maggie O’NEILL Transnational Refugees: The Transformative Role of Art?
6. Conclusion
I have suggested that in exploring the in-betweenness, the hyphenated, hybrid space between ethnography and art we may occupy the third space, a potential space/dialogic space where transformative possibilities and visual and textual products can emerge through “subject-reflexive feeling” (WITKIN, 1974) that may feed into cultural politics and praxis. It may help processes of social justice via a politics of recognition, thereby countering the misrecognition of the asylum seeker, refugee, migrant—the Other. The research/art/performative process and the creation of “performative spaces’ in the walks around Plymouth, both territorially and in the imagination, help participants (as well as audiences) to reflect on transnational experiences in a performative way. This example links us back to the discussion of image/action in BENJAMIN’s concept of dialectical images and the sensory potential of storytelling. These processes and practices are inherently creative and relational (JONES, 2006). I have also argued that the ethno-mimetic process is akin to ADORNO’s “coming to know the work of art” through hyphenated work that is interdisciplinary, relational and reflexive, sensuous/sensory and performative. Through hybrid (hyphenated) spaces and places, we can get involved in what MATARASSO (2006) calls democratisation— creating spaces for the marginalised/subaltern to speak for themselves—as subjects and objects of their own narratives. For, creating, performing narratives of subjectivities, lives and experiences are central to our attempts to better understand our social worlds, forging identities and a sense of belonging and helping to transform these worlds. “Democracy should not be mistaken for a natural outcome of development. It needs to be created, supported and protected” and “given its function as a creator of meanings and a carrier of values, culture is a powerful force within any strong democracy” (MATARASSO, 2006, p.4). [52]
Sensory Ethnography by Sarah Pink
‘The serendipitous multi-sensory benefits of participation’ Sarah Pink Sensory Ethnography
This lecture from Sarah Pink was very helpful in highlighting the many assumptions and social cues we all take from any encounter we become faced with. Social cues are the verbal and non-verbal signals expressed through our social interactions which influence our ‘impressions of’ and ‘responses to’ others. In the lecture Pink reviews the work of Lawrence Rosenblum; See what I’m Saying. In the book Rosenblum says the 5 senses do not travel along different channels, rather they interact.
Finding other ways of communicating and engaging with others. Pink suggests that we engage using a multi-sensory experience in any interaction with others or inanimate objects (she refers to her encounter with a magazine, see my detailed notes or the link to the lecture, attached). We have seen shifts of thinking towards our assumptions of ethnography since the 1990s, not simply seen as analysis and has become far more reflective and multi-faceted. It has moved on from merely observing and collecting data, to collaboration with the participants. The knowing in practice, learning with participants and engaging other ways of ‘knowing’ is a way to inform your work as an ethnographer.
In contrast to the past, researching today will require us to pay attention to the unspoken words and non-verbal cues we get from any social situation by rethinking what we would have ordinarily assumed was our intuition. Using all the interconnected senses – meaning the conventional focus on observing, listening, reading and writing is not enough for ethnographic practice.
Pink identifies 3 key elements;
1 – What she calls the Serendipitous Sensory of learning of being there. Long-term research – where something happens that you are not expecting so you learn by being there.
2 – The idea of Apprenticeship – has been a very long term in ethnography – where the observer becomes an apprentice to people they’ve started to research.
3 – Joining others in an Embodied activity such as walking or eating. For example, the many other ways of communicating that don’t just involve talking – such as sharing a cup of tea etc.
It is this lecture that has helped inform my reflective processes following the Rocket sessions and the task we were asked to consider (see my notes from WK23 17/03/21, written & digital journals)
The ‘Participant Observation Role’ – What does the Documentor/Observer Role allow me to do in sessions?
A: The activity allows me to observe the participant’s milieu/social environment that active participants may miss during the process or session, see Anthropology/Ethnography Sarah Pink. I am able to view interactions with others, taking in the entire social setting and calculations that happen below the level of conscious thought as I can capture reactions, facial expressions etc.
PG 6 of Participant Observation Role; H.R., Bernard (2006) Research Methods in Anthropology Chapter 13, uncovers 5 reasons to use this type of research;
- Opens up the areas of inquiry to collect a wider range of data.
- Reducing the problem of reactivity, meaning a successful observer fit’s into the scene well enough to be ignored.
- Being embedded enables researchers to learn what questions to ask/are relevant.
- Gaining an intuitive understanding of the meaning of data.
- Addressing the problems that are unavailable to other data collecting techniques.
Literature Review by Victoria Martin 2019;
Title: Applied Learning Theories and Inclusive Practice
This review considers three categories of learning theories; Cognitivism, Constructivism and Social Constructivism. The four major epistemologists being, professor Jean Piaget whose interests spanned both cognitive and constructivist views, founder of constructivism John Dewey, psychologist Jerome Bruner, and psychologist Lev Vygotsky whose theory was based on social constructivism.
The report examines and evaluates their theories focusing on how we learn, specifically the impact of language in learning, the psychological tools used to develop learning and consider the impact social influences, culture, and environment have on learning examining how by implementing them in teaching, helps support diversity and inclusive practice.
In 1996 The Tomlinson Report explored ways of improving learning suggesting institutions and teachers meet the individual needs of all learners. The report argued inclusive learning should improve the quality of learner experience for students with disabilities or difficulties by supporting their needs (Tomlinson, 2004). Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognises the diversity of learners, ensuring all have access to course content, can fully participate in learning activities, and can demonstrate their strengths at assessment. It also means actively working to ensure all learners are recognised and respected equally regardless of characteristics such as age, race or ethnic origin, disability, gender reassignment, or religious belief. Characteristics such as pregnancy, maternity, poverty and deprivation, and relatively poor English may also be considered. (Global Campaign For Education, 2019)
An exploration of psychologist Benjamin Bloom’s philosophy concerning the intellectual ability of learners through evaluation and assessment. As with other theorists such as Dewey, Vygotsky, and his contemporary Bruner, Bloom realised the significance of the use of language identifying the importance a learners cultural environment could have on their academic development suggesting certain classes could be at an advantage. His motivation was to provide all learners with equal access to quality education regardless of their social background by providing practitioners with the means to increase learners’ knowledge and thinking skills (Aubrey, 2019). Bloom created a cognitive domain referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy (fig.1) containing six hierarchical levels which continue to help practitioners support and challenge learners and differentiate their teaching methods in the classroom (Petty, 2014). Using the model also represents inclusive practice as it allows practitioners to plan sessions for learners with different and varied needs and abilities.
Current teaching practice sits somewhere between each of these theories and applying aspects of each to the diversity of age groups currently taught will be explored later in the second part of the review. Cognitivism is based on the principle that information is actively processed within the mind and the fundamental concept underpinning Constructivism is that learning is mentally constructed, learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning, (Bates, 2016) the view being we learn best when we actively construct our own meaning. The basic principles that support Social Constructivism are primarily influenced by society and culture. It is believed the sociocultural experiences constructed, the use of language, and interactions with others, help learners learn. It is these Constructivist and Social Constructivist ideologies that most align with further and higher education, whereby learning is guided, allowing learners to make a series of discoveries for themselves, as, when one is invested in making their own discoveries, experiences become more meaningful and deeply embedded (Aubrey, 2016).
Cognitivism is based on the supposition that information is actively processed inside the mind and behaviour modification takes place by searching for relationships that exist between the variants of information received (Bates, 2016). The first psychologist involved in developing Cognitivism is Jean Piaget, who was interested in the ways children think and learn, (Aubrey, 2019) believing children construct knowledge from their environment developing schemas through interactions within their surroundings which are continually modified as new experiences occur. Piaget’s theory was based on much younger learners which do not directly relate to further education, therefore, his work simply lays the foundation for the preceding report by explaining how humans learn. His work demonstrated thought and language development through stages, with each having its own unique characteristics. The limitation of Piaget’s theory is the assertion that students learn best in isolation. (Hattie, 2012) this is later contested by himself and the introduction of constructivism, in which he believes thought and language development through interactions with others.
The founder of constructivism John Dewey, whose work on intelligent action theory spans both cognitive and constructivist approaches to learning, advocates for learner-centered pedagogy with a pragmatic focus on active learning (fig.2), believing participants would learn best through hands-on experiences and by interacting with their environment creating what he terms as an experimental and active experience, (Bates, 2016) learners make connections and interrelate with learning using discovery and inquiry. Dewey’s constructivist views were in contrast to that of the didactic mainstream educational system whereby testing is used to establish learner’s knowledge. What underpins Dewey’s theories is how well they encourage the notion of experience and interaction for learners. It is this notion of experimentation that makes his concepts appropriate to teach further and higher education, and which are integral to current practice. There are differences in FE and HE in that more experienced learners are required to be more independent in their discovery by evaluating their findings (Independent Learning, 2014). Furthermore, applying discovery learning and spiral curriculum in the classroom, allows the practitioner to identify any gaps in learning presenting opportunities to strengthen subject knowledge (Aubrey, 2019).
This move to a more inclusive and democratic representation of learning and teaching also places Dewey in the concept of social inclusion which is supported by his progressive notions suggesting schools needed to be direct reflections of the surrounding communities with no part being ignored, (Aubrey, 2019) wrote, Dewey argued that by accepting pupils from different classes, cultures, and abilities, schools would lay foundations for building notions of democracy for children. Some critics of Dewey’s work have questioned the hands-on, learning-by-doing approach as simply playing, suggesting it lacks focus and demonstrates an overall exaggerated subjectivising (Aubrey, 2019). However, the strengths of Dewey’s theories are that they provide inclusive classrooms and develop democratically-minded and inquisitive learners (Geiger, 1958).
Another major influence, Jerome Bruner, his work had a significant impact on educational policy, theory, and practice. (Aubrey, 2019) wrote, his views of constructivism are seen as a link between the individualistic notion of cognitivism to his more recent theory which stresses the importance culture and authentic learning has to both inside and outside of the school environment, suggesting, (Pritchard, 2014) learners are more likely to succeed when faced with familiar concepts. We see parallels with the ideologies of Vygotsky throughout Bruner’s work, in particular, his theory outlining the importance cultural influences have toward learning.
His notion of discovery learning (fig.3) encourages active participants in learning, (Bates, 2016), for learners to develop problem-solving skills, Bruner suggests the teacher is required to facilitate learning by designing sessions that allow learners to discover for themselves the relationship between different parts of information, as they become more independent in thinking and acquiring new skills, so the support can gradually be reduced, this notion espouses similarities to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). One of the strengths of Bruner’s theory is the inclusive way it supports students by considering individual learning needs, promotes autonomy, and builds on the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding. This knowledge and meaning-making are constructed from current and previous experiences as well as with others, and a concept used in practice, where peers evaluate each other’s work, which strengthens their knowledge as they too learn new skills. However, critics suggested Bruner’s concept has flaws as learners may misconstrue meaning which in turn may make it difficult for the teacher to identify learner difficulties (Aubrey, 2019).
Bruner’s legacy can be seen in school curricula, his work on Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) (fig.4) suggests knowledge is refreshable, needing to be revisited regularly to develop greater depth, he created the spiral curriculum which he suggests prioritises the learner’s role in their education, is appropriate for any age, and can be taught to any group by simply increasing the complexity. Through this method, Bruner considers the importance of supporting learners in constructing their own meaning-making through interactions with their environment. Although great concepts, to be productive they do depend on having knowledgeable and confident teachers, (Bates, 2016). Again we see a clear correlation to the work of Vygotsky’s ZPD, also known as the scaffolding theory, (Aubrey, 2019), and to the notion of the importance of community, culture, and environment. The purpose of scaffolding is to provide support, knowledge, strategies, questioning, instructing, restructuring, and offering other forms of feedback (Van de Pol, Volman, and Beishuizen, 2010, quoted in Hattie, 2012:p.144) which makes it an influential tool that can be used in single or group sessions to give greater depth to learning, this also ensures it fits well integrated into further and higher education by enhancing discovery learning (Aubrey, 2019).
Vygotsky’s theories explore language and learning, his ideologies are firmly set within a Social Constructivist theory whereby learning is considered to be a collaborative process constructed through the interactions with others. Community plays a central role in the process of making meaning and his work on cultural-historical social activity theory considers the significance environment has on cognitive development, proposing social background plays a crucial role in the construction of knowledge.
Vygotsky suggests a child develops important cultural tools which represent how to communicate and make sense of the world, (Aubrey, 2019), these tools are influenced by the teachings and values within their culture such as language, art, and stories, which should be further developed at school. According to Vygotsky, language construction, namely, speech is seen as a particularly powerful tool that can be developed through interactions with others. Vygotsky termed these dialogues as, (Aubrey, 2019) external monologue which he suggests transfers into internalisation of thought and it is this occurrence that enhances language development.
Vygotsky also considers the significance of learning in play and learning in school. ‘In each of these contexts, children build upon cultural and social proficiencies and information that develops through internalisation and interaction with a more knowledgeable other’ (MKO) (Vygotsky, 1978). His work on zone of proximal development (fig.5) endeavors to illustrate and fill the gap between what learners achieve without guidance, (Aubrey, 2019), and the level of potential development with the help of MKO, this would be implemented by way of scaffolding questions to promote understanding, demonstrations and offering possible solutions. This concept of anthropology and guided participation within a social context is something which has been adapted by others such as we have already seen with Bruner and Barbara Rogoff, an educator and psychologist, whose work on sociocultural factors reflects Vygotsky’s theory and reverberates the importance of social interactions, and how these shared activities can support inclusion and development. (Aubrey, 2019) Critics of the theory suggest it is difficult to gauge whether the MKO can accurately meet the learner’s needs therefore, there is a danger of either going beyond or undervaluing learners’ potential. Further supporting the theory, Rogoff (1990) writes ‘in many social environments not seeking help in problem-solving from a more ‘capable other’ could be considered as imprudent.’
My research has discovered varying hypotheses of learner-centered pedagogy which are relevant to my teachings and practice, although not directly applicable, Piaget’s cognitive theories explored provided the foundation for this report and an understanding of how learners learn. Dewey’s concept of active participants, Bruner’s discovery learning, and Vygotsky’s theory on the significance of social interaction and scaffolding learning are all beneficial to practice and help me to encourage learners to take responsibility for their learning by developing collaborative and problem-solving skills. Using the learning model Bloom’s taxonomy, promotes higher-order thinking in learners and continues to help me plan and execute sessions, whilst applying scaffolding concepts permits me to stretch and challenge learners by providing invaluable formative feedback. Applying a combination of all theories ensures each session considers differentiation and inclusive practice for learners.
Application of Knowledge
The knowledge I have gained through the research conducted for this review has provided an enriched understanding of the theorists’ and their theories enabling me to apply findings directly to my practice. The focus for this study refers to two individual learners, one from the Level 3 Diploma group referred to as LA, and a Level 4 Degree student referred to as LB.
It is important to create an inclusive environment whereby every effort is taken to assure all learners I teach can learn well and are given every opportunity to do so. Using the learning model Bloom’s taxonomy (fig.1) helps me to identify learning styles and differentiate teaching so I can personalise learning in the planning stage. As previously explored, the language and terminology I use are also important, I have noted the language I use changes depending on which session I am delivering. For instance, I shall use different verbal and written language for level 3 art & design then I would do for the textile degree students and this differentiation of language is reflected in the handouts I produced to support these sessions. (fig.6).
Furthermore, the current global pandemic has resulted in a switch to remote teaching which has presented itself with the third aspect in relation to inclusivity and the language used, I was therefore presented with how best I could ensure I represent inclusivity to online students through the supporting resources. The level 3 fashion remote classes I am currently teaching are a new group of fifteen students. I have met these students once before, and whilst every effort goes into enabling learners can learn and access all resources so they are able to work well remotely, another way to ensure I am being inclusive is by guaranteeing the language I use exhibits respect and sensitivity to all. Therefore, representing this consideration, carefully written handouts and online greetings include gender-neutral phrases using singular pronouns such as “them” ‘they’, (Grace & Gravestock, 2009).
Learner A was part of a large group in level 3 art & design, this was the first time I had worked with younger students within an unfamiliar discipline. LA has short-term memory loss and has issues with formulating work in order, needing regular verbal reminders of tasks and direction throughout the session to keep them on track, they also have severe problems with literacy.
To start I considered Piaget’s theory of how we learn, by attaching existing schemas and building knowledge onto new experiences, this feeds into the integral link that connects each of the theorist’s ideologies within this report, being that learning is demonstrated by the ability to make connections between experiences and the short term memory loss LA suffers inhibits this. For growth, it is important for me to provide the opportunity for LA to make sense of their learning experience before they forget what they have achieved therefore, having someone annotate their daily findings helps by making sense of what they have learned and is an important aspect for their development, so at the end of each session I supported LA by explicating his dictated findings (fig.7).
I was mindful of Dewey’s active experience concept and by putting LA at the center of their learning, creates a meaningful process of personal development that both supports their needs and allows them to progress academically. Central to this theory is the development of a trusting relationship between student and teacher, which is paramount for the success of the 1:1 support provided (Aubrey, 2019). I see parallels to Rogoff’s suggestion of guided participation whereby problem-solving is linked to development and supported by a more ‘capable other’, also aligning with Vygotsky’s MKO theory.
To ensure each session challenges and to help measure progress, I worked on gradually increasing the complexity of tasks using Bloom’s Taxonomy by building on the lower order thinking skills such as knowledge & comprehension and apply & demonstrate (Petty, 2014). Furthermore, for each session, I supported learning by providing handouts with a checklist so they had a clear outline of what they needed to achieve in the session and a record of what had taken place. LA said this continues to work well for keeping them on track.
Learner B is a level 4 degree student who has various needs such as dyslexia, issues with working memory, extreme anxiety, and an auditory processing disorder (APD). The APD affects their ability to both understand and process information which is heightened if there are distractions or background noises. The challenges this learner presents are auditory, articulation, and recollection.
Being mindful of Dewey’s notion of interaction with learners and the difference in teaching methods from FE to HE (Independent Learning, 2014) is a helpful consideration, so limiting 1:1 contact whilst still supporting, builds independence in level 4 students and is important for their development. In addition to the theories and processes previously applied to Learner A, using Bloom’s Taxonomy (fig.1) theory proffers a better understanding of how they best learn so they can be supported while allowing me to personalise their learning in a whole group setting by allocating different content and outcomes, applying differentiation of techniques and tasks. Applying Dewey’s active learning theory and Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s scaffolding theory (Aubrey, 2019) also helps to challenge their thinking while building knowledge and understanding, which is necessary for progression (Pritchard, 2014).
Choosing the correct surroundings to deliver sessions are also a consideration, for sessions where there is an introduction to new or complex learning I will opt for a private room as it provides enclosed and quiet surroundings making a perfect environment for LB to learn. Again, as with LA, all supporting resources such as handouts will have a checklist printed. As sessions continue to be delivered on a virtual platform, the handouts are helpful in supporting conceptualisation in the absence of an MKO.
The teaching outlined above spans both further and higher education, I have examined and identified that whilst the language and delivery of sessions differ, the intersubjective nature of Dewey’s learner-centered pedagogy, Bruner’s discovery, and Vygotsky’s scaffolding learning theories can all be applied in each setting to help build intellectual development of learners, and how by implementing them in teaching helps me to support learning, diversity and inclusive practice.
Bibliography
Books
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Aubry. K., & Riley, A., (2019) Understanding and Using Educational Theories. 2nd ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd
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Fuchs, R.H., 1986. A Thousand Mile Walk by Richard Long. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd
Gauntlet, D., (2011). Making is Connecting. Cambridge: Polity Press.
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Kester, G., (2013) Conversation Pieces. California: University of California Press
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Credit Art Research Participant:
Grmalem Gonetse Kasa Refugee Artist has given permission for his work to be used and wants to be credited with the following links;
https://www.kentonline.co.uk/thanet/news/death-defying-asylum-seeker-journeys-highlighted-207064/
https://kccmediahub.net/exhibition-of-art-by-unaccompanied-asylum-seeking-children745
Grmalem Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/gkasa2020/
Digital Journals & Media: Podcasts, and Lectures, PDF’s, Podcasts & Webinars
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> Diversity | Arts Council England.’ N.p., n.d. Web. http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/how-we-make-impact/diversity-and-equality
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Gormley, A., https://www.antonygormley.com
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Lockowandt, M., PhD., 2013. Inclusion Through Art: An Organisational Guideline to Using the Participatory Arts with Young Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Inclusion_Through_Art_RSN_2013.pdf
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O’Neill, M., 2008. Transnational Refugees: The Transformative Role of Art? Forum: Qualitative Social Research (FQS) file:///Users/student/Downloads/The%20transformative%20role%20of%20Art.pdf
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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights Article 27. (1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts, and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits (1948) [Accessed January 2021]
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Van der Vaart, Gwenda; Hoven, Bettina van & Huigen, Paulus P.P. (2018). Creative and Arts-Based Research Methods in Academic Research. Lessons from a Participatory Research Project in the Netherlands [65 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 19(2), Art. 19. [pdf] Available at <https://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/2961/4227> [Accessed 2 November 2020]
Podcasts and Lectures
Prof Miller, D., 2020. How to conduct ethnography during social isolation. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSiTrYB-0so
Pink, S., 2018. Interview. Digital ethnography YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ugtGbkVRFM&t=18s
Pink, S., 2020. Interview. Doing ethnography remotely. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z__t7WkQ2c4
Pink, S., 2015. Lecture. Doing sensory ethnography. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ON7hfORQUio&t=14s
Primary Research
Offer, J., & The Rocket Artists Brighton (2021); Sessions with Artists, and MA Group Debriefings between February to July.
Online Collaborative Workshops with participant Grmalem Kasa, volunteer LL and Victoria Martin. March – May 2021.
Visuals: Images and Video footage
Artwork and Photography by Victoria Martin 2020/21
Artwork Terracotta Clay Objects by Grmalem Gonetse Kasa 2021
Artwork Terracotta Clay Objects by MA Volunteer 2021
Video and Audio footage by Victoria Martin 2021
Panopto Video Link; https://brighton.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=3bbd2a85-0ec5-45b5-ad35-ad4f00feaeff
Accompany Music;
Helland, Peder B., Bright Future Album, track #128 ‘Together’. Licensed June 2021 from https://soothingrelaxation.com